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ON THE NATURAL LANGUAGE OF SIGNS; AND ITS VALUE AND USES IN THE INSTRUCTION OF THE DEAF AND DUMB

By Rev. T.H. Gallaudet

Former Principal of the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb.

-CONCLUDED.-

We have considered, in the preceding number, the origin, universality, and some of the advantages of the natural language of signs originally employed by the deaf and dumb, expanded and improved by themselves and their teachers, and used, more or less, in their social intercourse at the institutions assembled, and in the process of their education. The extent to which these natural signs should be encouraged and made use of in this process is a question about which there exists considerable diversity of views, especially in the various schools, and among teachers whose talents and experience entitle their respective opinions to much weight.

My object is not to discuss the question of extent, (though I may touch upon it as I go along,) but to show the intrinsic value and indeed indispensable necessity of the use of natural signs in the education of the deaf and dumb, -- to a great degree in the earlier stages of their education, and in some degree, through the whole course of it. In attempting this, I wish I had time to go somewhat at length, into the genius of this natural language of signs; to compare it with merely oral language; and to show, as I think I could, its decided superiority over the latter, so far as respects its peculiar adaptation to the mind of childhood and early youth, when objects addressed to the senses, and especially the sight, have such sway over this mind, -- when the expressions of the human countenance, with the general air and manners, attitudes and movements, of the body are so closely scrutinized by the young observer, while he receives from these sources some of the deepest and most lasting impressions that are ever made on his intellect and heart, -- when his first understanding of the meaning of words, singly or in short colloquial phrases, which he hears uttered, depends so much on the unfolding of this meaning by objects, or combinations of objects and circumstances, addressed solely to his eye. The natural language of signs is abundantly capable of either portraying or recalling these objects and circumstances. The life, picture-like delineation, pantomime spirit, variety, and grace with which this may be done, with the transparent beaming forth of the soul of him who communicates, through the eye, the countenance, the attitudes, movements and gestures of the body, to the youthful mind that receives the communication, constitute a visual language which has a charm for such a mind, and a perspicuity, too, for such a purpose, that merely oral language does not possess.

It is greatly to be regretted that much more of this visual language does not accompany the oral, in the domestic circle, and, indeed, in all our social intercourse. Our public speakers often show the want of it, in their unimpassioned looks, frigid, monotonous attitude, and quiescent limbs, even when they are uttering the most eloquent and soul-stirring thoughts. Would they but look out and act out these thoughts, as well as speak them, how much greater power their eloquence would have. Why has the Creator furnished us with such an elaborate and wonderful apparatus of nerves and muscles, to subserve the purposes of this visual language; with such an eye and countenance, as variable in their expressions as are all the internal workings of the soul and graphically indicative of them; and with such a versatility of attitude and gesture susceptible of being "known and read of all men," -- thus to supply the deficiencies of our oral intercourse, and to perfect the communion of one soul with another, if we are to make no more use of these things than if we were so many colorless and motionless statues! If this visual language were vastly more cultivated than it is, and employed in the early training of children and youth in our families, schools, and other seminaries of learning, we should find its happy results in all the processes of education, on all occasions where the persuasions of eloquence are employed, and in the higher zest which would be given to the enjoyments of social life. As a people, especially in New England, we ought to be sensible of our deficiency in this respect and labor to remove it. We have latent enthusiasm enough to do this, but we have so long kept it under restraint, as if we were too fearful, or too cautious, to look, move and act as we think and feel, that we need strong convictions of the judgment and a course of persevering effort, to break up the inveteracy of the habit. Let us begin in our intercourse with children and youth, and lead them, by our example, to have the soul speak out freely in their looks and movements, and more than half the work will be done.

Most happily for the deaf and dumb, the God of nature has laid a necessity upon them to employ, as soon as they have wants and desires to express, this visual language, and to enlarge and improve it as their wants and desires expand. It is an unwise attempt, which some have made, to endeavor to check their propensity to do this in their childhood, if, indeed, it is possible to check it. It is cruel to try to take from them this spontaneous and ready means of intelligible intercourse to a great extent with those around them, of the development of their intellectual and moral faculties -- and of the pleasure which they feel in the constant exercise of their inventive powers, and from the consciousness of being able to overcome, in no small degree, the difficulties of their peculiar condition, and to help raise themselves to the dignity and delight of social existence. I would as soon think of tying the wings of the young lark that is making its first aspiring essays to fly upward and soar in the ethereal expanse.

I know it has been maintained that this natural language of signs, if cultivated in the childhood and earlier instruction of the acquisition of written and printed language, of useful knowledge, and, if he should prove to be capable of acquiring it, (which is far from being the case in the most numerous instances,) of the ability to articulate intelligibly for the purpose of promiscuous conversation, and to understand, by the eye, what is spoken to him by others. But, on the other hand, this visual language, absolutely essential in some form or other to taking successfully the first steps of his education, and needed, in a greater or less degree, through the whole course of it, (if wisely used, and kept subordinate when it ought to be,) is an important auxiliary in accomplishing these very objects. It will be used, more or less, by the deaf and dumb themselves, do what you may to prevent it. It is used, more or less, in the actual process of instruction, sometimes of design, and sometimes involuntarily, by those who, in theory, decry it the most. As I have already said, the only true question concerning its value and use is that of the extent to which it ought to be employed.

The great value of this visual language of natural signs, manifested by the countenance, and the attitudes, movements and gestures of the body, in the education of the deaf and dumb, will appear, if we consider, as I now propose to do, some of its other uses

How can the deaf-mute in the family and the school be brought under a wholesome government and discipline without it? Moral influence is the great instrument to be used in this government and discipline. The conscience is to be addressed and enlightened; the right and the wrong to be unfolded and made clear to the mind; a knowledge of those simple truths which affect our character and conduct to be conveyed to him who is, as yet, so ignorant of them. The blessings that attend virtue, and the evils of vice, are to be portrayed. Motives are to be presented. An enlightened self-interest is to be awakened; a laudable ambition to be excited; hope to be enkindled; and, sometimes, fear to be aroused. Nay, the sanctions of religion must be employed to complete the work. For the deaf-mute has his religious susceptibilities, implanted in his moral constitution by the Author of it, as well as other children. To feel and act entirely right, so as to secure the efficacy of a settled principle, and the uniformity of a fixed habit, he must feel and act religiously, in view of his relation and responsibility to God, of the sanctions of the divine law, and of the encouragements of the covenant of grace. The Bible, the Saviour, and the retributions of the future world, must be lights to shine upon his soul. He must be taught to pray, to pray in secret to his Father in Heaven, and thus, sensible of his dependence and weakness, to look above for wisdom, strength and grace to aid him in being and doing right. This moral influence, too, must reach him as a social, religious being. He must feel it in common with others of the community to which he belongs. Its effect on us all is greatly enhanced by thus feeling it. Family and social worship and the services of the sanctuary bear witness to this truth. What would become of the laws of God and of the laws of man, of the good order, or even the very existence of society, if men did not come together to bow before their common Lord, and collectively to learn his will, their relation to him and each other, and their duty? These principles should be recognized more distinctly, and carried into effect more faithfully than they are, in the education of all our children and youth. They apply with peculiar force to deaf-mutes and to the schools in which they are gathered. When carried out judiciously, they render the management of such schools comparatively easy and delightful.

This aggregate moral influence which I have thus described cannot be brought to bear upon the youthful mind without language, and a language intelligible to such a mind. There must be teacher and learner, one who addresses and one who is addressed. There must be a suitable medium of communication between these two minds, a common language which both understand. For let it never be forgotten that, in order to exercise a successful moral influence over the child in his government and discipline, so as to lead him to do right of choice and with a hearty good will, his confidence in his guide and governor must be secured. In cultivating this confidence, he must often be listened to patiently by the parent and teacher. He will have his questions to ask, his inquiries to make, his doubts and difficulties to state, that he may fully understand and feel what this duty is, and sometimes his excuses and extenuations to give, that he may escape blame when he does not deserve it. Collisions of feeling and of interest will arise between him and his fellows. Rights, on the one side or on the other, have been assailed, or wrongs inflicted. Each of the parties claims the privilege of stating his own case. They must both be heard. Facts must be inquired into, perhaps witnesses called in. Else, impartial and strict justice cannot be done. And if it is not done, confidence is weakened and sometimes lost, and authority by moral influence paralyzed or destroyed.

For all these purposes the child must have a language at command, common to him and the teacher, by which to make his thoughts and feelings known. This is indispensable to the exercise of a wholesome government and discipline over him.

In the exercise of this government and discipline, by a moral influence, one other very important thing is to be taken into account. Moral and religious truths, as we have seen, have to be presented by the teacher to the pupil. But the latter is too young to receive and understand these truths under the forms of abstract propositions. Abstract terms, and those of generalization, are not now level to his capacity. He as yet thinks in particulars. The teacher must go into particulars. He must describe individuals as acting right or wrong; state special cases; draw out detailed circumstances; give facts graphically and minutely delineated, in order to bring out the truths he wishes to present and inculcate, and to offer the motives which will have pertinency and efficacy. By degrees, he can unfold the powers of abstraction and generalization in the child, and be doing his work in a more concise way. But, at first, and indeed for a considerable length of time, he must patiently take the slow, inductive process. It cannot be hurried. To conduct this process, the teacher needs a language common to him and the child, having graphical, delineating, and descriptive powers, callable of particularizing thought, of giving to it a "local habitation and a name." One prominent defect in the moral and religious training of children and youth consists in not regarding these very obvious and simple principles of their successful instruction, so as to bring them, intelligently and voluntarily, under an efficacious moral influence. It is, undoubtedly, to meet this case, existing not only among children and youth, but among thousands of ignorant and undisciplined adult minds, that so much of the Bible abounds with the detailed facts of biography and history, with circumstantial descriptions, with the results for good or evil of human conduct, with living examples, and with simple and touching parables.

We see, then, for these various and conclusive, reasons, the necessity of a common language, adequate to the exigencies of the case, to be employed by the teacher and the deaf-mute, in order that a wholesome government and discipline may be exercised over him through a moral influence.

Where shall we find this language, or must we go to work and create one for the purpose? The deaf-mute cannot hear what you say to him. He can see the motions of your lips and organs of speech, more or less distinctly, when you utter words. But it is a long and laborious process, even in the comparatively few cases of complete success, to teach him to discriminate accurately between the various motions of the organs of speech. and so to notice their combinations as to know the words which are intended to be uttered, -- words, too, which are useless for the purpose of intercommunication until their meaning has been explained to him. To do this, and to teach him the proper combinations of words, so as to be able to impart the most simple kind of moral and religious instruction, is also another long and laborious process, -- while, at the same time, I do not hesitate to say, without fear of contradiction, that neither of these processes can be successfully carried on unless resort is had to natural signs.

Then to make this language of intercommunication complete as we have already seen, for the purposes of government and discipline, the deaf-mute must be able to convey his thoughts and feelings to the teacher. Shall he be fitted to do this by being taught how to articulate intelligibly, without the ear to guide him? You have another long and laborious process to go through, before, even in the few successful cases, he can have a sufficient stock of words which he understands, and be able to form their proper combinations, in order to furnish him with an adequate medium for thus conveying his thoughts and feelings. Nor can this process be carried on as it ought to be without the use of natural signs.

Similar difficulties must arise in the use of the manual alphabet for spelling words on the fingers, or in presenting written or printed words to the eye of the deaf-mute; though it is true that these difficulties will principally consist in teaching him the meaning of those words and their combinations, to such an extent as to furnish the means of a free intercommunication between him and the teacher. And here, again, natural signs. have their great value and necessary uses.

Bear in mind, too, that this common language should be one by which, as has been shown, the deaf-mute can intelligibly conduct his private devotions, and join in social religious exercises with his fellow-pupils. Otherwise, one very important means of their proper government and discipline is wanting.

Now even admitting, what I yet believe to be impracticable, that after very long and laborious processes, a sufficient command of language can be obtained by the deaf-mute, in one or the other of these ways that have been mentioned, for the various purposes of his government, and discipline by moral influence, and without the use at all of natural signs, still great and needless evils must accrue from such a course. A considerable time must elapse, -- two or three years, in not a few cases more, -- before the object can, in a good degree, be accomplished. In the meanwhile, the teacher and pupil are at first quite destitute of, and all along sadly deficient in, an adequate medium of intercommunication. Under such embarrassments, is there not a better way, seasonably, intelligibly and effectually, to cultivate the moral faculties of the deaf-mute, bring him under a wholesome moral influence, and train him in the right way: to furnish a due preparation of his mind and heart to engage in his own private devotions, and to enjoy the privilege of social religious exercises and instruction with his fellow-pupils; and to secure a judicious government and discipline in the institutions intended for his benefit?

The God of Nature and of Providence has kindly furnished the means of doing this. The deaf-mute has already spontaneously used, in its elementary features, before he comes to the school, that natural language of signs which, improved by the skill of teachers, and current as a medium of social intercourse among the pupils at such schools, is adequate to the exigency. As we have seen in the preceding number, he easily and quickly becomes acquainted with this improved language by his constant, familiar intercommunication with the teachers and his fellow-pupils. By means of it his government and discipline. through a kind moral influence can at once be begun; for he has a language common to him and his teacher. Every day he is improving in this language; and this medium of moral influence is rapidly enlarging. His mind becomes more and more enlightened; his conscience more and more easily addressed; his heart more and more prepared to be accessible to the simple truths and precepts of the Word of God. The affecting contents of that Word are gradually unfolded to him. He recognizes his relation to God and to his fellow men. He learns much of the divine character, and of his own obligations and duties. At length, he is made to understand, like a child indeed, but yet to understand, the way of salvation through Jesus Christ. If he has the disposition to pray, he has a simple, beautiful language of his own, in which to address his Father, in Heaven. He comes every morning and evening with his associates to be instructed from the Word of God, and to unite with this silent assembly, through the medium of natural signs, employed for both these purposes, by the teacher, in a most expressive and touching mode of worship before the throne of Grace. On the Sabbath he enjoys its sacred privileges. The moral influence of the government and discipline of the institution over the objects of its care is thus secured, and rendered permanently efficient through the medium of the language of natural signs, much, very much, sooner, and with vastly more success, than it could be obtained in any other way, if, indeed, it could be obtained at all, to any effectual purpose, without the use of this language.

Some, while reading these remarks, may hesitate and have a shade of skepticism pass over their minds, with regard to the competency of the natural language of signs thus to accomplish the various objects which have been mentioned, in the moral and religious training of the deaf-mute, and in his government and discipline. This language may seem to them so simple; so limited, in its narrow range, to the delineation and description of merely sensible things; so barren of all modes of expressing what lies, beyond the province of sense, within the human mind and heart, and in the spiritual world, as to lead them to doubt very much what the writer has said about its efficacy in these respects, and to attribute his descriptions of its genius and power to the ardor of a professional enthusiasm.

He pleads guilty, if needs be, to the charge of this enthusiasm; -- though, mellowed as it is by advancing years and the lapse of a considerable portion of time since the vigor of his manhood was devoted to the instruction of the deaf and dumb, and writing as he does with the retrospective soberness of one who retraces, in a quiet resting place, the difficulties and perplexities, as well as facilities, of a journey long ago taken, his convictions are as strong as they ever were, that the deaf and dumb are themselves the original sources of the fundamental processes, so far as language is concerned, of conducting their education, and that, in this case, as well as in all others which relate to education generally, it is the part of wisdom to find the path which nature points out, and to follow it. Experience, philosophy and art, may often do a great deal to remove some of the roughnesses of this path, to make it more smooth and straight, more easily and expeditiously to be trod, more pleasant and delightful; but it will not do to quit it, else those whom you would lead in the way of knowledge, of truth, and of duty, will follow on with irksome and reluctant steps, if, indeed, they follow at all, except as the blind do when they are led by the blind, to incur the risk every moment of some difficulty or danger.

But this natural language of signs, comprising the various modes which the God of Nature has provided for one soul to hold communion with another, through the eye and countenance, the attitudes, movements, and gestures of the body, is by no means so limited in its powers and range as it might appear to be to him who has given it only a cursory attention, and who has not watched its practical applications and results.

In what relates to the expression of passion and emotion, and of all the finer and, stronger sentiments of the heart, this language is eminently appropriate and copious. Here, without it, oral language utterly fails; while it alone, without oral language, often overwhelms us with wonder by its mysterious power. In this province its power probably will be denied by none. But the expression of the passions, emotions and sentiments constitutes no small part of that common language which, as we have seen, both the deaf-mute and his teacher must possess, in order that his moral and religious training may be properly conducted, and a wholesome government and discipline over him be secured. How can he be taught the necessity and the mode of controlling, directing, and at times subduing, the risings and movements of this sensitive part of his moral constitution, unless his attention is turned to the varieties, character, and results of its operations? How shall he be taught, for instance, that anger, within certain limits, is sometimes justifiable, while, at other times, it has no redeeming duality, but is utterly unjustifiable and wrong, unless this feeling is brought before his cognizance, and its nature and effects described? In this, as in other similar cases, the natural language of signs furnishes the only thorough and successful mode of doing this. Its necessity and value will be fully manifest, if we consider what an important part of the moral and religious training of children and youth consists in leading them to bring their passions, emotions, and sentiments under the sway of conscience, enlightened by the Word of God. In one word, the heart is the principal thing which we must aim to reach in the education of the deaf-mute, as well as of other children; and the heart claims, as its peculiar and appropriate language that of the eye and countenance, of the attitudes, movements, and gestures of the body.

The teacher of the deaf and dumb must have the use of this language, not only to convey command and precept, but to enforce both by the power of a living example. He wishes to train aright the passions, emotions, and sentiments of those entrusted to his care. He should strive to be their model. But this model must not be a statue. He must look, act, move, and demean himself, at all times, in such ways as to let it be seen that his is a soul of rectitude, purity and benevolence, swayed by love to God and love to man, -- self-denying, patient, kind and forbearing, and yet firm, not only in obeying himself the right, but, in the exercise of a lawful authority, requiring others to obey it. His eye, his countenance, his whole air and manner, should be the spontaneous outward manifestations of these inward feelings. The clearness and spirit of such manifestations depend greatly on the naturalness, the ease and vivacity with which his whole physical man responds to the inner man of the heart. If he does not appreciate the value of the natural language of signs, if he does not cherish and cultivate it to the highest degree of force, beauty and grace which it is possible for him to reach, he has not before him the true standard of what a thoroughly qualified teacher of the deaf and dumb should aspire to be. He may speak to them on his lips or fingers, or address them on his blackboard or slate; helping himself out, perhaps, with some signs and gestures lacking life, clearness and grace, and with an unmoved and unmoving countenance, but he is not the one to succeed as a guide and example in conducting their moral and religious education or in exercising a wholesome paternal government and discipline over them. Neither is he qualified to conduct, in any good degree as they ought to be conducted, the other processes of their education.

It would be interesting to inquire how far these principles apply to the teachers of children and youth who are in possession of all their faculties. Did time permit, I would attempt to show that they do thus apply with peculiar force.

But something more, it will be said, is necessary in the training and governing of the deaf-mute than that the common language between him and his teacher should be sufficiently complete so far as the passions, emotions and sentiments, are concerned. We have been told, it will be added, that the teacher must go into particulars; that individuals must be described; cases stated; circumstances drawn but in detail; facts graphically and minutely delineated; the biography, history and parables of the Scriptures, and even its simple doctrines and practical precepts presented to the mind of the pupil, and that he must be prepared, too, to engage in private and social religious exercises. Is the natural language of signs sufficient for these things? Let us see.

So far as objects, motions or actions addressed to the senses are concerned, this language, in its improved state, is superior in accuracy and force of delineation to that in which words spelt on the fingers, spoken, written or printed, are employed. These words consist of arbitrary marks or sounds, which, when put together in a certain order, it is agreed shall have a certain meaning. How do children originally acquire the meaning of these words? Does the shape or sound of the word convey its meaning? Not at all. How, then, is its meaning acquired? By the presence of the object, motion or action which the word denotes, addressed to some one of the senses of the child when the word is offered to his notice, -- or by some occurring event in nature or in common life; by some circumstance, some attitude, sign or gesture, some expression of countenance, which, singly or together, unfold the meaning. Here you must always go back as the starting point; though, when the meanings of a certain number of words are thus acquired they may be employed, doubtless, to recall objects which are not at the time addressed to the senses, or even to describe new ones. Yet the elements of these processes must always be found in things which have once been present to the senses of the child.

Now even if the natural language of signs were as arbitrary as that of words, there is no reason why it should not be as adequate as that is to the purposes under consideration. If a certain sign made with the hands is agreed upon, always to denote a book, why is not the sign as definite and as available as the letters b-o-o-k, uttered from the mouth, spelt on the fingers, or written or printed? But this language is far from being an arbitrary one. In its original features, the deaf-mute copies nature in forming it, -- the shapes, sizes, properties, uses, motions, in fine, the characteristics, addressed to some one of his senses or sensations, of the external objects around him. And, with regard to his internal thoughts, desires, passions, emotions or sentiments, he just lets them show themselves out, (in accordance with the mysterious laws of the union of mind and body, and of the action and re-action of the one upon the other,) spontaneously and freely, through his eye and countenance, and the attitudes, movements and gestures of his muscular system. As he uses it, it is a picture-like and symbolical language, calling up the objects and ideas which it is designed to denote in a portraying and suggestive way, which no oral, written or printed language can do. It admits of great accuracy and vividness of description, and its simple signs are susceptible of permutations and combinations which give it a significancy, copiousness and fluency admirably adapted to the purposes of narrative and of moral and religious instruction, enlarged and improved as it has been by the efforts of genius and skill, and yet preserving, except in a degree scarcely worthy of being mentioned, its original picture-like and symbolical character.

It is true that the genius of this natural language of signs is most favorable to the presentation of truth by the gradual, inductive process, and admits scarcely at all of exhibiting it in its forms of abstraction and generalization. But so much the better, for the purpose for which it is used: the instruction and moral training of minds that need to have abstract and general truths analyzed, reduced to their simple elements, and thus made clear to their intellect and effective on their heart.

As the deaf-mute advances in knowledge, and in his acquaintance with written and printed language, it is, doubtless, important to employ terms of abstraction and generalization in his moral training, and to make less use of the natural language of signs; but even this should be done with care, while this very language, for the most part, furnishes the best means of explaining these terms. Simplicity and perspicuity of conception, even when compelled to express itself in particulars and in the language of childhood and of unlettered minds, is of vastly more value than the half-formed and vague notions which, clothed in elevated and imposing terms, sometimes, indeed, chime on the ear and excite admiration by their pompous swell, but effect nothing in the way of making men wiser and better.

That the natural language of signs has these characteristics and capabilities; that it is the very language which the deaf-mute continually needs for the purposes of private and social devotion, and for the reception, certainly in all the earlier stages of his education, of moral and religious truth; and that it is indispensable in the government and discipline of persons in his condition, the experience of a long course of years in the Asylum at Hartford for their benefit most abundantly testifies.

In conclusion, the writer would urge upon the parents and friends of the deaf and dumb, in view of the remarks which he has made, to encourage the child who suffers such a privation to make his thoughts and feelings known, as early and as fully as possible, through the medium of natural signs, -- and to acquire themselves, with the other members of the family, the use of this language, that the intercommunication between them and the child may be an intelligible and pleasant one. It will certainly be so to the deaf-mute, and it will become more and more so to those who are thus learning it from him, as they perceive from day to day its power, its beauty and its practical uses. Instead of throwing obstacles in the way of the future progress of his education at the institution to which he may be sent, it will prove, as we have seen, highly auxiliary to this progress; while, whether at home or at the school, it is an indispensable means of his moral training and his judicious government and discipline.

The instructors, too, of the deaf and dumb, if the principles and views that have been advanced are correct, should appreciate the great importance of being masters of the natural language of signs, -- of excelling in this language; of being able to make delineating and descriptive signs with graphical and picture-like accuracy; of acquiring the power to have the inmost workings of their souls, -- their various thoughts and feelings, with their fainter and stronger shades of distinctive character, -- beam out through the eye, countenance, attitude, movement and gesture; and of doing all this with spirit, grace and fluency, and for the love of doing it.

The labor is not small, indeed, that must be undergone, in order to possess these indispensable qualifications of an accomplished instructor of the deaf and dumb. To acquire them, the new and inexperienced teacher must consent, carefully and perseveringly, to take lesson after lesson of the older teacher who is a proficient in this language; while the older teacher must have the patience to give these lessons. For the language of natural signs is not to be learned from books. It cannot be delineated in pictures or printed on paper. It must be learned, in a great degree, from the living, looking, acting model. Some of the finest models for such a purpose are found among the originators of this language, the deaf and dumb. The peculiarities of their mind and character, and the genius of that singularly beautiful and impressive language which nature has taught them, should be the constant study of those whose beneficent calling it is to elevate them in the scale of intellectual, social and moral existence; to fit them for usefulness and respectability in this life and for happiness in that which is to come.